LATE RADHAKRISHNA CHOUDHARY

 

 

 

2. THE SENAS

The Senas were Brahma Ksatriyas of the lunar race and their ancestors came originally from the Karnata region, identical with the southern parts of the Bombay Presidency, Hyderabad State and north-western part of Mysore. In their epigraphs they describe themselves as Karnata Ksatriyas.(52) Their settlement in Bengal can hardly be isolated from other contemporary Karnata settlements specially those in Bihar and Orissa such as the Karnata family of Mithila and the Rastrakutas and Tailapavamsis of Orissa.(53) These Karnata establishments are usually associated with the eastern expansion of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI (1076-1127). Among the list of Pala officials from the time of Devapala to Madanapala we have ‘Gauda-Malava-Khasa-Huna-Kulika-Karnata-Lala-Chata-Bhata’(54) and it is not unlikely that the Karnata officials acquired sufficient power which enabled them to set themselves up as independent chiefs when the central authority became weak. Like the Karnatas of Mithila, the Senas came in the wake of the victorious campaign of Vikramaditya VI who led a campaign against North India in 1068 AD. His feudatory chief, Acha, is said to have made the kings of Kalinga, Vanga, Maru, Gurjara, Malava, Chera and Chola, subject to his sovereign and the process was continued by his successors. R D Banerji believes that the Karnatas were remnants of Rajendra Chola’s army(55) or the Karnata allies of Karna. The rise of the Senas of Bengal and the Karnatas of Mithila is generally associated with the Chalukya invasion of Someswara I and Vikramaditya VI. In the ancient genealogical table, the Senas are stated to be Vaidyas and some describe them as Kayasthas. From the Naihati Copperplate of Vallalasena(56) we learn that many princes of the lunar race were the ornaments of Radha and Samantasena, the first to settle down in Bengal, was born in that race. He is said to have subdued his enemies and in his last days settled down on the bank of the Ganges. Very little is known about him and Hemantasena who used the title of Maharajadhiraja.

VIJAYASENA (1095-1158): Hemantasena was succeeded by his son, Vijayasena, who must have begun his career as a feudatory under the Palas. He married a princess of the Sura family of Apara-Mandar(57), and this matrimonial alliance with the royal Sura family(58) might have resulted in the consolidation of his power. This enabled him to fish in the troubled waters of Bengal and consequently to attain political greatness. He was the extirpator of the Pala suzerainty of western and northern Bengal, of  Varmana rule from East Bengal and is further credited with having led a naval expedition in the West, a fact indirectly attested to by the Antichak Inscription of Masanikesa. His victory over Nanya, Vira, Raghava, Vardhana, and kings of Gauda, Kamarupa and Kalinga is evident from his Deopara inscription. Vardhana is identified with Dwaropavardhana of Kausambi, Virguna is Viraguna of Kotatavi, Raghava with the king of Kalinga or is to be identified with Anantavarmana Chodaganga (1156-1170) and Nanya with Nanyadeva of Mithila.(59) He defeated Madanapala of Gauda. Originally his seat of power lay at Radha but ultimately he consolidated his power over Vanga and Gauda.

At this point of time, the Palas were engaged in their struggle against the Gahadawalas.(60) Between 1124 and 1146 AD the Gahadawalas had extended their authority up to Patna and Munger. Madanapala (1144-1161) claims to have held sway over Patna and Munger and this shows that he succeeded in driving out the Gahadawalas. Since the Senas, the Gahadawalas and the Karnatas of Mithila joined hands against the Palas. Govindapala of the Gaya inscription was ousted by the Gahadawalas before 1175 AD either by Vijayachandra (1155-70) or by Jayachandra (1170-1193). Similar was the fate of the Palapala who is believed to have been ruling in Munger in 1165 AD. D C Sircar is of opinion that when western Bihar passed into the hands of the Gahadawalas, Palapala continued to rule over eastern Bihar till it was conquered by the Turkish soldiers. The contention does not hold good in view of the Sanokhar inscription of Ballalasena who was ruling in the Bhagalpur region in 1166 AD. The ascription of Pala rule in eastern Bihar is based on tenuous grounds. Even the Ranakas of eastern Bihar or the Antichak Inscription of Masanikesa do not mention the names of their Pala overlord and that is indicative of the decline of their authority in Bihar.

Nanya and Vijayasena appear to have combined against the Palas but soon fought over the distribution of the spoils and that ultimately led to the estrangement of relations between the two. The final defeat of the Palas may be ascribed to Vijayasena of Vanga and Nanyadeva and Gangadeva of Mithila.

Vijayasena possessed uncommon courage. He was a military genius and put down petty chiefs and assumed imperial titles like Parameswara, Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Ariraja-brsabha Samkara etc. He restored peace and prosperity in Bengal. He performed Mahapurusatuladana. He was undoubtedly the real founder of the greatness of the Senas of Bengal.

BALLALASENA (1158-1179): Vijayasena was succeeded by his son Ballalasena. It is stated in the Adbhutasagar that he was engaged in a conflict with Gaudaraja, identified with Govindapala. The fact stands corroborated by the Vallalacharita. According to a tradition, he is credited with having conquered Mithila during the life-time of his father. The very fact that Ballalasena married the Chalukya princess, Ramadevi, is indicative of his growing strength, prestige and contact with the ancestral land of Karnata. He assumed the title of Ariraja-Nihsanka-Samkara. If Vallalacharita (I.8) is to be relied upon, his dominion consisted of the whole of West Bengal, Bangladesa, and portions of Bihar or in other words, Radha, Bagdi, Vanga, Varendra, and Mithila. That he ruled at least up to Bhagalpur in Bihar is proved by the Sanokhar inscription. He maintained in tact the dominions of his father.

His reign was chiefly marked by peaceful pursuits. He was a great scholar and an author of repute and two of his works – Danasagara and Adbhutasagara – have come down to us. His reign is famous for reorganising the caste-system and introducing the practice of ‘Kulinism’ among the Brahmanas, Vaidyas and Kayasthas. A patron of Brahmanical Hinduism, Ballalasena favoured the tantric form of religion and sent a good number of missionaries among the Brahmanas to Magadha, Bhutan, Chittagong, Arakan, Orissa and Nepal. He spread the glory of the Senas outside Bengal. He was succeeded by his son, Laksmanasena.

LAKSMANASENA (1179-1205): Though his predecessors were Saivas, Laksmanasena became a Vaisnava and styled himself as Paramavaisnava, Paramanarasimha, Gaudeswara, Arirajamadanasamkara etc. after his accession to the throne. Famous poets, like Dhoyi, Sarana, Halayudha, Umapati, Sridharadasa, Jayadeva and Govardhana adorned his court and that is indicative of his being a man of literary taste and culture.

He led victorious military campaigns(61) against Gauda, Kalinga, Kamarupa and Kasi and planted pillars of victory at Puri, Varanasi and Allahabad. During his rule, the Palas were gasping for existence in parts of Magadha and Gahadawalas were trying to stabilise their hold in Bihar. The Tarachandi Rock Inscription(62) shows that Magadha had passed into the hands of the Gahadawalas in 1169 AD during the reign of Vijayachandra. The Shivahar plates(63) (1175 AD) refers to a grant of King Jayachandra whose another record has been found at Bodh-Gaya belonging to the period 1183-92. These records show that the Gahadawalas had stabilised their power in central Magadha in the second half of the 12th century AD. It is said that Laksmanasena succeeded in driving away the Gahadawalas from Magadha and carried his own arms into their dominion.(64) He completed the conquest of Gauda and it was renamed Laksmanavati. He was the first king among the Senas to assume the title of Gaudeswara. His authority in the Gaya region is supported by the discovery of the two copperplates. He carried on military expeditions far away from the frontiers of Bengal in all directions but his ended in a sea of troubles that overwhelmed him and his kingdom. It was in 1196 that one of his feudal chiefs, Domannapala set up an independent kingdom in Khadi (Sunderban area).(65) Under Laksmanasena, Bengal played an important part in north Indian politics.

It was during his reign that India faced a great danger due to the invasion of Mohammad Ghori, who sent his general Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji against eastern India. We are not aware of the steps taken by Laksmanasena to safeguard Magadha and Bengal but it can be surmised that he posted guards at the military routes along the Ganges and through the passes of Rajmahal hills. Bakhtiyar seems to have followed the Jharkhand route and must have given a surprise by taking an unpopular route in reaching Nadia.(66) Bakhtiyar met with no opposition but his efforts did not bear any fruit on account of his death. Laksamanasena ruled in East Bengal with Vikramapur as his capital and also issued a land grant. Minhaj calls him the great Rae of Bengal.(67)

The Turkish invasion took place between 1200 and 1202 AD. Laksmanasena was proverbially kind, generous and lawful. The Sena power declined after him. The vassal states and the neighbouring kingdoms became gradually powerful and asserted their independence at the cost of the Sena territory. The story of his failure is still shrouded in mystery and nothing positive is known to enable us to weave any reasonable tale of the event. Until further evidence is forthcoming we have to remain satisfied with what we know about the meteoric rise of Bakhtiyar Khilji at the cost of Laksmanasena. He died in 1205 AD and his successors continued to rule for sometime more.

 

3. THE CHANDRAS

During the period of the decline of the Palas, independent and semi-independent powers flourished in Bengal and Bihar. In Bengal the most important among them were the Chandras and the Varmanas. The assertion of Lama Taranatha that they ruled the eastern part of Bengal from the sixth to the eighth century AD is not supported by an epigraphic evidence. The epigraphic evidence, discovered so far, relates to the rule of the Chandras in East Bengal between tenth and eleventh century AD.(68) The Chandras ruled continuously for about one hundred and eleven years:

Srichandra – 46 years

Kalyanachandra – 24 years

Lahadachandra – 18 years

Govindachandra – 23 years(69)

(Total – 111 years)

Purnachandra - ?

Suvarnachandra - ?

Trailokyachandra – 875-905

Srichandra – 905-955

Kalyanachandra – 955-985

Lahadachandra – 985-1010

Govindachandra – 1010-1035

(The average comes to about 130 years.)

Their chronology is further evident from the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola who claims to have defeated Govindachandra.(70) Morrison has tried to fix the date of the Chandra dynasty on the basis of the Chola inscription. They had their headquarters at Vikramapur and all plates of Srichandra and Kalyanachandra were issued from Vikramapur. Remotely the Chandras were connected with Bihar and their forefathers are said to have been associated with Rohitagiri or Rohtasgarh. Thirteen inscriptions of the dynasty have so far come to light and their history is based on these sources.

From their inscriptions, it appears that Purnachandra was an independent ruler in Rohtasgarh.(71) Their invocation to the Buddha in their CP grants leads us to believe that they were Buddhists which is further confirmed by their epithet ‘Paramasangata’ and the emblem of the wheel of law in their seal. Trailokyachandra is credited with having laid the greatness of his family. He was a great ruler and is said to have defeated the Gaudas. He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He is described as “Adharo-Harikelaraja-Kakuda-Chatra-Smitanam-Sriyam”.(72) He added Chandradwipa and Harikela. He had a number of subordinate rulers. Trailokyachandra might have taken advantage of the weakness of either Rajyapala or Gopala II. He was succeeded by his son Srichandra who called himself Parameswara-Paramabhattaraka-Maharajadhiraja. He is known to us from the Mainamati Plates of Lahadachandra and Dacca Plate of Kalyanachandra. He conquered Assam and his kingdom included the areas around Sylhet. He defeated the ruler of Gauda and re-instated Gopala on the throne. He ruled over the whole of Eastern Bengal and the coastal regions of southern Bengal.

He was succeeded by Kalyanachandra. He defeated the Gaudas and the Mlechas on the Lauhitya river. He conquered Samatata from the Rata dynasty during the period of confusion caused by the conquest of Gauda by the Kambojas. He extended his power over Kamarupa and in the deltaic region of Bengal. It is not clear as to who the Mlechas were? From the time of Trailokyachandra onwards, the Chandras appear to have been independent rulers of south and east Bengal and had made Vikramapur the capital of their dynasty.

The disintegration of the Palas in the tenth century AD was mainly due to the foreign invasions and the consequent rise of the three independent kingdoms in Bengal viz. Gauda, Radha and Vangala. There followed a prolonged struggle between the Palas, Kambojas and Chandras in course of which territories probably changed hands with terrific speed and rapidity and alliance shifted from time to time according to convenience. Kalyanachandra was succeeded by his son Lahadachandra. Though a Buddhist, he was also devoted to Vasudeva and visited Varanasi. He was a man of great learning. He had to contend against Mahipala I (restorer of the Pala authority). The Kalachuri invasion of the Pala kingdom facilitated further the rise of the Chandras as an independent power. The exact political status of the Chandras vis-a-vis Kamarupa, Gauda, Kalachuris and Mlechas is yet to be finally assessed and pinpointed on the basis of solid evidence. He was succeeded by Govindachandra. It is said that he was defeated by Rajendra Chola but this had no permanent effect on the history of the Chandras. It was the Kalachuris who gave a death blow to the power of the Chandras.(73)

 

4. THE VARMANAS

The Varmanas succeeded the Chandras. They claim to have descended from a branch of the Yadava dynasty of Simhapura, the location of which is disputed. The main source of information for a study of the history of this dynasty is the Belava CP of Bhojavarmana.(74) It was under Jatavarmana that the foundations were laid for the greatness of the dynasty.(75) According to the Belava CP, he spread his paramount sovereignty, married Virasri, daughter of Karna Kalachuri, extended his dominions over the Angas, humiliated the dignity of Kamarupa, brought disgrace to the strength of Divya and vested wealth in the Brahmanas versed in the Vedas. The fight between Divya and Jatavarmana is preserved in the Nalanda Stone Inscription.(76) Divya had revolted against Mahipala II. Jatavarmana took advantage of the anarchy and chaos arising out of the revolt of Divya and carved out a kingdom for himself. It is believed that he accompanied Karna in his campaign against Bengal. The Paikar Inscription records that Karna extended his authority up to the Bhagirathi river and according to the Rewa Inscription he is said to have defeated a king of the eastern country (ARASI – 1921-22 – p.78-80; EI-XXIV.105). According to V V Mirashi, Karna killed the last king of the Chandra dynasty, placed Vajravarmana in charge of the newly acquired territory and cemented his political alliance by marrying his daughter with Jatavarmana.

Jatavarmana was succeeded by his son, Samalavarmana but there is a controversy regarding the succession. The Vajrayogini CP(77) of Samalavarmanadeva suggests that one Harivarmana succeeded Jatavarmana. Harivarmana’s name is familiar from the Colophons of the two Buddhist MSS, copied respectively in the 19th and 39th years of his reign. He assumed the titles of Maharajadhiraja, Paramaeswara, Paramabhattaraka.(78) He is also mentioned in the Bhuvaneswara Inscription of Bhatta Bhavadeva(79) and is also known to us from the Samantasara CP.(80) He appears to have been the elder brother of Samalavarmanadeva. He was a friend of both Bhima and Ramapala and Sandhyakara Nandi possibly refers to him in the Ramacharita.(8)1 Bhatta Bhavadeva was a minister of peace and war under Harivarmana, who combined in himself the qualities of a statesman, warrior, scholar and author.(82) His grandfather was a minister under Jatavarmana. On the basis of all the known facts, it is evident that Samalavarmanadeva possibly succeeded his brother Harivarmana and survives only in local tradition.(83) He had a son, by his queen Malayadevi, named Bhojavarmana who issued the Belava CP in the fifth year of his reign from Vikramapur.(84) He succeeded to the throne after the death of his father.

Bhojavarmana’s Belava CP is an important document. They were the followers of Visnu and were orthodox supporters of the Vedas. There is also a reference to the Visnu-Chakra-Mudra in line 48 of his CP. He assumed the title of Paramavaisnava and Maharaja. It is rather a chance that the two ruling Buddhist dynasties of the Palas and the Chandras were duly replaced by the orthodox Hindus like the Senas and the Varmanas. After Bhojavarmana, they could not maintain their hold on Bengal and the dynasty came to an end.

 

5. THE DEVA DYNASTY

The family of the Devas is said to have descended from moon and was the follower of Vaisnava cult. Their history is known to us from the five Copperplate grants. There were in all five kings in the dynasty, viz., i) Purusottamadeva, the founder is without any royal title, ii) Madhumanthanadeva or Madhusudana is the real founder of the dynasty and is referred to as a king, iii) Vasudeva, about whom nothing is known, iv) Damodaradeva ascended the throne in Saka 1155 (1231 AD) and ruled over Tipperah, Noakhali and Chittagong and is described as Sakala-bhupati-Chakravarti, and v) Dasarathadeva uses the epithets Parameswara, Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Ariraja, Damyanadhava. No details about them are available. The titles and epithets used in their records are mostly conventional and need not be taken seriously.

 

6. THE KINGDOM OF PATTIKERA

The kingdom of Pattikera lay in the district of Tipperah. Pattikera is mentioned in a manuscript of Astasahasrikaprajnaparamita preserved in the Cambridge University Library and is dated AD 1015. The MSS contains a picture of sixteen armed Buddhist Goddess Chunda. The Burmese(85) source Hmannan narrates the romantic love story between a prince of Pattikera and the daughter of King Kyanzitha (1086-1112). Damodaradeva of the Deva dynasty is believed to have ruled over Pattikera area. There was a close and intimate connection between the kingdoms of Pattikera and Burma. The fact stands substantiated by an inscription of the thirteenth century AD which records a grant in favour of a Buddhist monastery built in the city of Pattikera. We know of an independent King of Pattikera named Harikeladeva who is believed to have ascended the throne in AD 1203-4 and was ruling up to AD 1220. Nothing more is known about him or for that matter about the history of Pattikera.

 

Continued: home/page 5  (Click HOME in the menu and select the page you want to visit.)